The First Mongol Invasion of India

"All who surrender will be spared; whoever does not surrender but opposes with struggle and dissension, shall be annihilated."

The early thirteenth century witnessed the rise of the Mongol empire under the leadership of Genghis Khan, also known as Chengiz Khan, who united the Mongol tribes and built a powerful empire. They conquered vast territories and brought mighty kingdoms to their knees.


The first Mongol invasion of India (Hindustan) took place during the reign of Sultan Shams-ud-din lltutmish (r: 1211-1236). In 1221, Genghis Khan and his army reached the banks of the River Indus for the first time.

Defeat in the Battle of Indus: Sultan Jalal-ud-din's Escape to India (1221)

After the destruction of the extensive Khwarazmian empire by Genghis Khan in 1220, its ruler, Sultan Ala al-Din Muhammad Khwarazm Shah, also known as Ala al-Din ibn Tekish (r: 1200-1220), fled from the Mongols and ultimately died as a fugitive on Abaskun Island in the Caspian Sea.


His eldest son, Jalal al-Din Mangburni (r: 1220-1231) attempted to regain control of Khwarazm, but was forced to withdrew due to lack of cooperation from the amirs. Pursued relentlessly by the Mongols, Jalal-ud-din moved from place to place in search of safety until he reached Ghazni. There, he managed to rally scattered forces into a considerable army. He also married the daughter of Amin Malik, the governor of Herat.

In September 1221, Jalal-ud-din won a major victory against a Mongol force at Parwan. However, a dispute broke out among his amirs over a horse taken among the spoil, and few of them left his camp with their troops.

Determined to capture Jalal-ud-din alive, Genghis Khan personally led the pursuit. Upon reaching Ghazni, the Khan learned that Jalal-ud-din had left the city fifteen days earlier and was heading towards the River Indus. When the Mongols finally overtook him, Jalal-ud-din was near a ford on the banks of the Indus. With no boats available for crossing, he found himself trapped between the Mongol army behind him and the river ahead.

The Mongols won a decisive victory in the battle of Indus in November 1221. Jalal-ud-din's army was almost destroyed, and Amin Malik was killed. As the Mongols closed in, Jalal-ud-din was in danger of being captured, when his cousin seized the bridle of his horse and compelled him to retire from the battlefield.

According to Shajrat Ul Atrak, "the unfortunate sultan, heart-broken, and with his eyes full of tears, took leave of his wives and children, and having mounted a strong horse, again charged the Mongols, and fought his way through them to the Indus, where he threw off his armour and ensigns of royalty, and plunged with his horse from a bank near twenty feet high into the stream, to the opposite bank of which his horse swam in safety."

The Mongols stood on the riverbank and watched Jalal-ud-din dismount on the opposite side. He took off his saddle, spread his saddlecloth, bows, arrows, and tunic in the sun to dry, emptied the water from his scabbard, placed his umbrella on his spear, and sat beneath its shade.


The Mongol soldiers wanted to pursue him, but Genghis Khan forbade them. Genghis was amazed by Jalal-ud-din's gallant bearing. He seized the collar of his garment and pointing him out to his sons, said, "Such sons should be born to a father!"

"He lauded him and said, from no father
Will such a son be produced throughout the world.
He is like a victorious lion in a forest,
And as courageous as a crocodile in a river."


As Jalal-ud-din walked along the bank, he came opposite his former encampment, where he was agonized to see his camp plundered and his family seized by the Mongols.

Genghis Khan ordered the execution of Jalal-ud-din's sons and followers. He remained near the river and ordered divers to search for treasures Jalal-ud-din had thrown into the river.

Jalal-ud-din After Crossing the Indus

After crossing the Indus, Jalal-ud-din was joined by a few followers who had also managed to cross the river. He concealed himself in a nearby forest for a day or two. This place later became known as Chul Jalali. Gradually, more men joined him.

Jalal-ud-din made a night attack on a band of robbers and seized their animals and weapons. His forces also defeated troops from the hills of Balala and Bankala, near Lahore, who had attacked them. Some of these men later joined his side, and his army eventually grew to nearly 3000 soldiers.

When news of Jalal-ud-din's activities reached Genghis Khan, he sent commanders Dorbei Doqshin and Bala Nuyan to hunt him down. Jalal-ud-din retired towards Delhi, hoping to obtain assistance from Sultan Iltutmish.

The Mongols crossed the river but were unable to locate him. They captured the fortress of Nandana, which Jalal-ud-din's amirs had earlier taken from Qamar-ud-din Karmani, a deputy of Nasir-ud-din Qabacha, the ruler of Multan and Uch. The Mongols then attempted to besiege Multan, but due to its resilient defense and the oppressive heat, they withdrew. Continuing their pursuit, they devastated Lahore, Peshawar, Malakpur and the coastal areas, but having failed to find Jalal-ud-din, they recrossed the Indus and joined Genghis.

As Jalal-ud-din approached the frontiers of Delhi, he sent an envoy to Iltutmish requesting a temporary shelter.

Iltutmish, however, was afraid of the consequences of giving him shelter. He feared that hosting the prince would either bring the wrath of the Mongols or create a powerful rival within his own borders.


Consequently, Iltutmish had the Khwarazmian envoy murdered. He then deputed a grandee with provisions and presents to Jalal-ud-din, expressing regret that the climate around Delhi would not be suitable for Jalal-ud-din's health. He offered to allocate a location near Delhi for Jalal-ud-din, which would be handed over once it was cleared of rebels.

Realising that he would receive no meaningful assistance from Iltutmish, Jalal-ud-din returned to Balala and Bankala, where he was joined by further remnants of his defeated armies. He sent his general Malik Taj-ud-din Khalaj to raid Mount Jud (Salt Range), forcing the Khokhar chief Rai Sangin to submit. Sangin gave his daughter in marriage to him and sent an army under his son to join Jalal-ud-din's troops.

According to Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani, Iltutmish sent a force against Jalal-ud-din, prompting him to divert his course towards Multan and Uch.

Jalal-ud-din's Conflict with Nasir-ud-din Qabacha

Jalal-ud-din subsequently turned against Nasir-ud-din Qabacha, a rival of his ally, Rai Sangin. Their hostility grew after Qabacha's subjects killed one of Jalal-ud-din's viziers and a son of Amin Malik, who had sought refuge in Qabacha's territories fleeing from the battle of the Indus.

Meanwhile, Jalal-ud-din was joined by some amirs who had defected from the army of his brother, Ghiyath al-Din Pir-shah, who had established himself in Persia (Iran).


With these reinforcements, Jalal-ud-din sent an army led by his general Uzbek Tai towards Qabacha's camp at Uch. Defeated, Qabacha retreated to the fort of Bhakkar and then to Multan. Jalal-ud-din set out for Uch and sent an envoy to demand a sum of money and the return of his wife, the daughter of Amin Malik, who had taken refuge with Qabacha after her father's death at the Indus. Qabacha fulfilled these demands.

Afterwards, Jalal-ud-din returned towards Salt Range to spend the summer, and on the way captured several forts, including Pasrur and Kallur Kot. However, upon learning of another Mongol army pursuing him, he was forced to turn back. As he passed by Multan, he sent an envoy to Qabacha demanding payment for peaceful passage across his lands.

Qabacha, who feared that the Mongols might again invade his territories because of Jalal-ud-din's presence, refused and prepared for battle. After a brief encounter with Qabacha's forces, Jalal-ud-din left for Uch. Finding the inhabitants hostile, he burned the city before departing for Siwistan (Sehwan).

Minhaj records that Iltutmish personally marched from Delhi, compelling Jalal-ud-din to march towards Siwistan. An-Nasawi's "Sirat al-Sultan Jalal ad-Din Mankburni" recounts that after an initial skirmish with Jalal-ud-din, Iltutmish sent an envoy proposing an armistice and offering his daughter in marriage to Jalal-ud-din. While Jalal-ud-din welcomed the proposal, he took no further action.

Jalal-ud-din's forces laid siege to Siwistan and Fakhr-ud-din Salari, Qabacha's governor at Siwistan, offered his submission.

After remaining there a month, Jalal-ud-din confirmed the governship of Siwistan upon Fakhr-ud-din, and marched to Debal and Damrilah. Sinan-ud-din Chatisar Sumra, the governor of Debal, fled to an island.

Jalal-ud-din then sent an army under Khas Khan to raid Nahrwala (Anhilwara). The expedition returned with camels and other booty. At Damrilah, Jalal-ud-din erected a Jami mosque, remnants of which are still visible today.

Jalal-ud-din Returns to Iran

While at Debal, Jalal-ud-din learned that Iltutmish, in alliance with Qabacha and other Northern Indian rulers, planned to drive him out of the region. Two of Jalal-ud-din's amirs meanwhile deserted him and joined Iltutmish. To make matters worse, reports arrived that a Mongol army was once again approaching in pursuit.

He convened a military council to decide whether to remain in India or depart for elsewhere. He finally sided with the amirs, especially those who had abandoned his brother Ghiyas-ud-din Pir-shah, and decided to go to Persia, where his brother's subjects still favored him.

Before leaving, he appointed Jahan Pahlawan Uzbek Tai to govern his Indian conquests and left Saif-ud-din Hasan Qarlugh in charge of the Afghan territories that had survived Mongol destruction.

After spending approximately three years in the Indian subcontinent, Jalal-ud-din finally departed for Persia through Makran, in 1224. Sultan Jalal-ud-din Mangburni was the last ruler of the Khwarazmian empire.

Meanwhile, Chagatai Khan, Genghis's son, advanced to Makran. After plundering Kach and Makran, he halted for the winter at Kalinjar. However, unable to obtain information about Jalal-ud-din's whereabouts, he abandoned the pursuit and marched towards Turan.

Notes

Sultan Ala-ud-din Khwarazm Shah had defeated Muhammad Ghori at Andkhud in 1203. During the reign of Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud (r: 1206-1212), Ala-ud-din invaded Ghor and defeated him. Ala-ud-din Ali (r: 1214-1215), the last Sultan of Ghor, was captured by the Khwarazm Shah in 1215, bringing the Ghurid empire under Khwarazmian control.