Nasir-ud-din Mahmud: The Sultan Who Ruled in Balban's Shadow
Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (r: 1246-1266) was one of the younger sons of Sultan Iltutmish. He was the eighth king of the early Turkish empire of Delhi, commonly known as the Slave dynasty.
Historian Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani dedicated his celebrated work, Tabaqat-i Nasiri, to Nasir-ud-din. This book is a major historical account of the Muslim dynasties of Asia from 810-1260 AD.
Upon the death of Iltutmish (r. 1211-1236), his eldest surviving son, Rukn-ud-din Firuz, ascended the throne. Nasir-ud-din and other members of the royal family were confined by Shah Turkan, the mother of Rukn-ud-din.
Later, when Ala-ud-din Masud, the son of Rukn-ud-din Firuz, became Sultan, he released his uncles Nasir-ud-din and Jalal-ud-din from confinement. Nasir-ud-din was then appointed governor of Bahraich. He conducted successful campaigns and Bahraich became prosperous under his administration.
When the maliks and amirs were disgusted with the rule of Ala-ud-din Masud, they secretly invited Nasir-ud-din to Delhi to assume the throne.
Nasir-ud-din's journey from Bahraich to Delhi was conducted with utmost secrecy. His mother spread the news that her son was sick and must go to Delhi for treatment. She placed him in a litter and sent him to Delhi with a large retinue of servants. At night, he was covered with a woman's veil and set on a horse. They reached Delhi so secretly and swiftly that almost no one knew of the prince's arrival until the day he ascended the throne.
Masud was deposed, and Nasir-ud-din, at the age of approximately seventeen, assumed the throne in 1246.
During this period, the Chihalgani, a group of forty Turkish slaves formed by Iltutmish, had become extremely powerful. Their growing influence weakened the authority of the Sultan. Due to his young age and the difficult political situation, Nasir-ud-din had to heavily rely on these Shamsi Turkish slaves.
Among the most powerful of them was Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, who held the office of Amir-i-Hajib, or Lord Chamberlain.
In 1253, Balban's power temporarily declined. Raihan secretly plotted with Indian Muslims and some Turkish nobles who were unhappy with Balban's growing influence. As a result, Nasir-ud-din dismissed Balban from office and sent him to his fief at Hansi.
Raihan was appointed as the Wakil-i-dar (Representative in the Court). He removed Balban's supporters and relatives from their positions and replaced them with his own allies. Among those affected were the historian Minhaj, Balban's brother Kishli Khan Aibak, and his cousin Sher Khan Sunkar. The wazirship was transferred to Nizam-ul-Mulk Junaidi. Raihan also persuaded the Sultan to transfer Balban from Hansi to Nagaur.
However, Raihan's position did not last long. "The reason was this, that the maliks and servants of the Sultan's court were all Turks of pure lineage, and Tajziks of noble birth, and Imad-ud-din Raihan, who was castrated and mutilated, and of the tribes of Hind, was ruling over the heads of lords of high descent, and the whole of them were loathing that state, and were unable any longer to suffer that degradation."
Although Balban had been sent to Nagaur, he still had the support of several Turkish nobles who awaited an opportunity to depose Raihan.
Similarly, Sher Khan, after being stripped of his provinces, also sought refuge with Möngke at Karakorum.
In 1254, Jalal-ud-din and Sher Khan returned from Turkistan and moved towards Lahore. Möngke sent his general Nuyin Salin to assist Jalal-ud-din. They drove away the officials of Delhi from Lahore and installed Jalal-ud-din as a Mongol vassal there.
Jalal-ud-din then marched from Lahore to join forces with Balban and other nobles near Tabarhind. Nasir-ud-din and Raihan marched against the confederates towards Sunam. However, great disorder broke out among the royal forces, prompting the Sultan to retreat to Hansi.
A group of amirs from both sides then tried to negotiate a compromise. They agreed to return to their allegiance to the Sultan on the condition that Raihan should be removed from office and sent away. Nasir-ud-din had little choice. He was forced to accept their demand or risk losing his kingdom.
Consequently, Raihan was dismissed and sent to Budaun, while Balban was reinstated as Naib. The Sultan's former officials and Balban's relatives also regained their positions.
Jalal-ud-din, who had supported Balban and his allies hoping to gain the throne of Delhi, felt betrayed. He returned to Lahore, where he continued to rule.
Meanwhile, Malik Iz-ud-Din Balban-i-Kashlu Khan, the governor of Multan and Uchh, turned against Nasir-ud-din and pledged allegiance to the Mongol ruler Hulagu Khan, brother of Möngke.
Raihan was later transferred from Budaun to Bahraich, where he caused disturbances. On Balban's orders, Taj-ud-din Arslan Khan Sanjar was sent to remove Raihan from Bahraich. Sanjar was however, captured and imprisoned by Qutlugh Khan at Oudh. Sanjar later escaped and reached Bahraich, where he defeated Raihan and executed him. After Raihan's death, the position of Qutlugh Khan also began to decline.
Qutlugh Khan was ordered to go to Bahraich, but he refused to leave Oudh and rebelled. As the royal armies advanced, he moved towards Santur, probably Santaurgarh, seeking refuge with Rana Rampal. When the royal army marched towards Santur, Qutlugh Khan fled and joined Kashlu Khan near Samana.
The rebels led by Kashlu Khan secretly communicated with dissatisfied nobles in Delhi, plotting to capture the capital. The treachery was, however, leaked out. Balban advised Nasir-ud-din to take action against the hostile nobles, and the Sultan ordered them to return to their respective fiefs.
As Kashlu Khan and Qutlugh Khan advanced towards Delhi with their forces, the royal army marched against them and scattered their forces. Many of the rebels submitted to the Sultan. Minhaj is silent about the fate of Qutlugh Khan and Nasir-ud-din's mother. They probably remained with Kashlu Khan afterwards.
On one or more occasions Kashlu Khan brought the Mongols into Multan in hopes of recovering it, but he was defeated each time.
In 1258, ambassadors from Hulagu Khan arrived at Delhi. After demonstrating impressive horsemanship in mock battles and making a grand display before the ambassador, they were escorted in a magnificent procession through the city to the royal palace. The Sultan sent them back with lavish gifts.
It is suspected that Balban had poisoned Nasir-ud-din. Historian Isami and the traveller Ibn Battuta states that Balban, who had longed to secure the crown, was responsible for Nasir-ud-din's death.
Nasir-ud-din left no surviving heir. In 1259, he had a son with Balban's daughter, but the child died in infancy. Isami mentions two other sons, who also apparently did not outlive their father.
Nasir-ud-din dedicated much of his time to transcribing verses from the Quran, selling these copies in the bazaar. He wrote them privately to avoid recognition of his handwriting. He maintained himself through his writings and did not want to depend on public allowances. He believed that a person who could not work for his own bread did not deserve it.
His lifestyle was also extremely simple. During public audiences, he wore regal apparel, but in private he was known to wear old and worn garments.
Isami noted that Nasir-ud-din did not misappropriate even a small amount of the Sultanate's revenues during his twenty-year reign. He entrusted the treasury to the ulama and the military.
Major Raverty, the translator of Tabaqat-i Nasiri, provides details about Nasir-ud-din's tomb. After Nasir-ud-din's death, his face was covered with a piece of old black drapery from the mosque at Mecca. His bier was constructed with long legs so that it could be dragged along the ground by a rope to a cavern prepared for his burial. A tomb was later built over the cavern, which became a place of pilgrimage.
Minhaj also documented Nasir-ud-din's successful expedition against the Talsindah fort, which was built by a Hindu chief in Kannauj. He described the expedition in verse in a work known as Nasiri Nama. Nasir-ud-din rewarded Minhaj with an yearly grant, while Balban, who was the hero of the poem, gave him a village in Hansi.
Historian Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani dedicated his celebrated work, Tabaqat-i Nasiri, to Nasir-ud-din. This book is a major historical account of the Muslim dynasties of Asia from 810-1260 AD.
Early Life
Nasir-ud-din was born after the death of his eldest brother. His father, Iltutmish, gave the infant the same name and title as his deceased brother.Upon the death of Iltutmish (r. 1211-1236), his eldest surviving son, Rukn-ud-din Firuz, ascended the throne. Nasir-ud-din and other members of the royal family were confined by Shah Turkan, the mother of Rukn-ud-din.
Later, when Ala-ud-din Masud, the son of Rukn-ud-din Firuz, became Sultan, he released his uncles Nasir-ud-din and Jalal-ud-din from confinement. Nasir-ud-din was then appointed governor of Bahraich. He conducted successful campaigns and Bahraich became prosperous under his administration.
When the maliks and amirs were disgusted with the rule of Ala-ud-din Masud, they secretly invited Nasir-ud-din to Delhi to assume the throne.
Nasir-ud-din's journey from Bahraich to Delhi was conducted with utmost secrecy. His mother spread the news that her son was sick and must go to Delhi for treatment. She placed him in a litter and sent him to Delhi with a large retinue of servants. At night, he was covered with a woman's veil and set on a horse. They reached Delhi so secretly and swiftly that almost no one knew of the prince's arrival until the day he ascended the throne.
Masud was deposed, and Nasir-ud-din, at the age of approximately seventeen, assumed the throne in 1246.
During this period, the Chihalgani, a group of forty Turkish slaves formed by Iltutmish, had become extremely powerful. Their growing influence weakened the authority of the Sultan. Due to his young age and the difficult political situation, Nasir-ud-din had to heavily rely on these Shamsi Turkish slaves.
Among the most powerful of them was Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, who held the office of Amir-i-Hajib, or Lord Chamberlain.
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| Nasir-ud-din Mahmud's accession to the throne |
Nasir-ud-din and Balban
In 1249, Nasir-ud-din married Balban's daughter. Balban was subsequently appointed Naib-i Mamlikat, or deputy of the kingdom, and received the title Ulugh Khan. From this point, Balban's influence increased greatly. Nasir-ud-din took careful measures to maintain the loyalty and support of the nobles and patiently suffered the humiliation of being reduced to a figurehead by their leader Balban.Rise of Imad-ud-din Raihan
The leading maliks and amirs at the Delhi court were mainly Turks and Tajiks. Imad-ud-din Raihan, an eunuch who had converted from Hinduism, gained entry into the administration and played a pivotal role during this period.In 1253, Balban's power temporarily declined. Raihan secretly plotted with Indian Muslims and some Turkish nobles who were unhappy with Balban's growing influence. As a result, Nasir-ud-din dismissed Balban from office and sent him to his fief at Hansi.
Raihan was appointed as the Wakil-i-dar (Representative in the Court). He removed Balban's supporters and relatives from their positions and replaced them with his own allies. Among those affected were the historian Minhaj, Balban's brother Kishli Khan Aibak, and his cousin Sher Khan Sunkar. The wazirship was transferred to Nizam-ul-Mulk Junaidi. Raihan also persuaded the Sultan to transfer Balban from Hansi to Nagaur.
However, Raihan's position did not last long. "The reason was this, that the maliks and servants of the Sultan's court were all Turks of pure lineage, and Tajziks of noble birth, and Imad-ud-din Raihan, who was castrated and mutilated, and of the tribes of Hind, was ruling over the heads of lords of high descent, and the whole of them were loathing that state, and were unable any longer to suffer that degradation."
Although Balban had been sent to Nagaur, he still had the support of several Turkish nobles who awaited an opportunity to depose Raihan.
Balban Returns
Jalal-ud-din Masud, brother of Nasir-ud-din, was the governor of Kannauj. In 1248, during a visit to Delhi, he was suddenly overcome by fear and fled to the court of the Mongol emperor Möngke Khan at Karakorum. He hoped to obtain assistance in taking the throne of Delhi from his brother.Similarly, Sher Khan, after being stripped of his provinces, also sought refuge with Möngke at Karakorum.
In 1254, Jalal-ud-din and Sher Khan returned from Turkistan and moved towards Lahore. Möngke sent his general Nuyin Salin to assist Jalal-ud-din. They drove away the officials of Delhi from Lahore and installed Jalal-ud-din as a Mongol vassal there.
Jalal-ud-din then marched from Lahore to join forces with Balban and other nobles near Tabarhind. Nasir-ud-din and Raihan marched against the confederates towards Sunam. However, great disorder broke out among the royal forces, prompting the Sultan to retreat to Hansi.
A group of amirs from both sides then tried to negotiate a compromise. They agreed to return to their allegiance to the Sultan on the condition that Raihan should be removed from office and sent away. Nasir-ud-din had little choice. He was forced to accept their demand or risk losing his kingdom.
Consequently, Raihan was dismissed and sent to Budaun, while Balban was reinstated as Naib. The Sultan's former officials and Balban's relatives also regained their positions.
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| Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud and Ghiyas-ud-din Balban in a private discussion |
Jalal-ud-din, who had supported Balban and his allies hoping to gain the throne of Delhi, felt betrayed. He returned to Lahore, where he continued to rule.
Meanwhile, Malik Iz-ud-Din Balban-i-Kashlu Khan, the governor of Multan and Uchh, turned against Nasir-ud-din and pledged allegiance to the Mongol ruler Hulagu Khan, brother of Möngke.
Qutlugh Khan's Rebellion
Raihan's chief ally was Malik Qutlugh Khan, whom Nasir-ud-din's mother had married after Iltutmish's death. Nasir-ud-din granted them the fief of Oudh (Awadh) and asked them to live there.Raihan was later transferred from Budaun to Bahraich, where he caused disturbances. On Balban's orders, Taj-ud-din Arslan Khan Sanjar was sent to remove Raihan from Bahraich. Sanjar was however, captured and imprisoned by Qutlugh Khan at Oudh. Sanjar later escaped and reached Bahraich, where he defeated Raihan and executed him. After Raihan's death, the position of Qutlugh Khan also began to decline.
Qutlugh Khan was ordered to go to Bahraich, but he refused to leave Oudh and rebelled. As the royal armies advanced, he moved towards Santur, probably Santaurgarh, seeking refuge with Rana Rampal. When the royal army marched towards Santur, Qutlugh Khan fled and joined Kashlu Khan near Samana.
The rebels led by Kashlu Khan secretly communicated with dissatisfied nobles in Delhi, plotting to capture the capital. The treachery was, however, leaked out. Balban advised Nasir-ud-din to take action against the hostile nobles, and the Sultan ordered them to return to their respective fiefs.
As Kashlu Khan and Qutlugh Khan advanced towards Delhi with their forces, the royal army marched against them and scattered their forces. Many of the rebels submitted to the Sultan. Minhaj is silent about the fate of Qutlugh Khan and Nasir-ud-din's mother. They probably remained with Kashlu Khan afterwards.
Nuyin Salin's Invasion
In late 1257, Möngke Khan sent an army under Nuyin Salin towards Uch and Multan. Balban led the forces sent against the Mongols. The Mongol army was defeated and driven back.On one or more occasions Kashlu Khan brought the Mongols into Multan in hopes of recovering it, but he was defeated each time.
In 1258, ambassadors from Hulagu Khan arrived at Delhi. After demonstrating impressive horsemanship in mock battles and making a grand display before the ambassador, they were escorted in a magnificent procession through the city to the royal palace. The Sultan sent them back with lavish gifts.
Death of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud
Very little is known about the final days of Nasir-ud-din. He fell ill and died in 1266, after a reign of about twenty years. Tabaqat-i Nasiri concludes in the fifteenth year of his reign, although Minhaj continued to serve Balban for some time thereafter.It is suspected that Balban had poisoned Nasir-ud-din. Historian Isami and the traveller Ibn Battuta states that Balban, who had longed to secure the crown, was responsible for Nasir-ud-din's death.
Nasir-ud-din left no surviving heir. In 1259, he had a son with Balban's daughter, but the child died in infancy. Isami mentions two other sons, who also apparently did not outlive their father.
Nasir-ud-din dedicated much of his time to transcribing verses from the Quran, selling these copies in the bazaar. He wrote them privately to avoid recognition of his handwriting. He maintained himself through his writings and did not want to depend on public allowances. He believed that a person who could not work for his own bread did not deserve it.
 |
| Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Writing the Quran |
His lifestyle was also extremely simple. During public audiences, he wore regal apparel, but in private he was known to wear old and worn garments.
Isami noted that Nasir-ud-din did not misappropriate even a small amount of the Sultanate's revenues during his twenty-year reign. He entrusted the treasury to the ulama and the military.
Major Raverty, the translator of Tabaqat-i Nasiri, provides details about Nasir-ud-din's tomb. After Nasir-ud-din's death, his face was covered with a piece of old black drapery from the mosque at Mecca. His bier was constructed with long legs so that it could be dragged along the ground by a rope to a cavern prepared for his burial. A tomb was later built over the cavern, which became a place of pilgrimage.
Minhaj also documented Nasir-ud-din's successful expedition against the Talsindah fort, which was built by a Hindu chief in Kannauj. He described the expedition in verse in a work known as Nasiri Nama. Nasir-ud-din rewarded Minhaj with an yearly grant, while Balban, who was the hero of the poem, gave him a village in Hansi.
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