Mongol Invasions During the Reign of Ala-ud-din Khilji
Ala-ud-din Khilji (r: 1296-1316) was one of the greatest rulers of the Delhi Sultanate. During Ala-ud-din's reign, a series of Mongol invasions occurred between 1297 and 1306, some of which were aimed at conquering Delhi.
For Indian rulers, the Mongols were a consistent threat. The Mongols had established a formidable presence in Central Asia, and their expansionist ambitions frequently targeted the fertile plains of India. However, Ala-ud-din's effective administrative measures prevented any of their invasions from causing harm.
Zafar Khan's exceptional generalship and bravery during the battle with Saldi earned him widespread acclaim throughout the country, inciting feelings of jealousy and fear in Ulugh Khan and even in Ala-ud-din. Historian Ziauddin Barani notes that Ala-ud-din was thinking of ways to get rid of Zafar Khan, including sending him to Lakhnauti or even poisoning or blinding him. But Ala-ud-din was prevented from this measure due to a third invasion of the Mongols.
The Mongols established their camp at Kili, near Delhi, and commenced a siege. The residents of nearby towns sought refuge in the old fort of Delhi out of fear.
Ala-ud-din marched out of Delhi and camped at Siri. Malik Alau-l Mulk, the uncle of Ziauddin Barani and the kotwal of Delhi, advised against engaging the Mongols, suggesting that they should seek peace through negotiation. However, Ala-ud-din firmly rejected this counsel.
Addressing Alau-l Mulk in front of the assembled amirs and maliks, Ala-ud-din declared, "If I were to follow your advice, how could I show my face to anyone? With what manliness will I be able to go into my harem again? How would my subjects respect me, and what courage would the rebellious see in me to make them remain loyal?"
"Alau-l Mulk! I have given you the kotwalship of Delhi and entrusted the city, the harem and the treasury to your care. Whichever of us, whether he (Qutlugh Khwaja) or I, prove the conqueror, salute the victor with the keys of the gates, and of the treasures, and lay them before him, and become his obedient servant and vassal." With these words, Ala-ud-din marched with his army toward Kili.
Commanding the right wing of the army, Zafar Khan made a furious assault on the Mongols, routing their left flank. He pursued the retreating enemy for some distance, contemplating an attack on their center. However, with only a small force remaining, he wisely chose to retreat and returned to his camp triumphant.
Meanwhile, the Mongol general Targhi, who was lying in ambush on the way to Kili, attacked Zafar Khan from behind and surrounded him with his forces. Zafar Khan rallied his troops, despite being outnumbered, and resumed the conflict. At last, his horse's leg was cut off by a sabre and he fell to the ground. Undeterred, he quickly regained his footing, retrieved arrows from his quiver, and felled a Mongol warrior with each shot.
Impressed by Zafar Khan's valor, Qutlugh Khwaja sent him a message, "Come to me. I will take you to my father, who will raise you to a higher dignity than the king of Delhi has done." However, Zafar Khan ignored his offer.
Qutlugh Khwaja, realizing that Zafar Khan could not be captured alive, ordered his men to shower arrows on him. In this manner, Zafar Khan met his martyrdom.
For the next three days, both armies stood face to face from dawn until dusk. By the end of the third night, the Mongols retreated. Qutlugh Khwaja, who had been severely wounded in the battle, died shortly after returning from India.
Ferishta records that Ala-ud-din viewed Zafar Khan's death as a second victory. In contrast, Isami states that when Ala-ud-din heard of Zafar Khan's fall, he was deeply saddened because India had lost a warrior like Rustam.
Zafar Khan's bravery was so legendary among the Mongols that if their cattle refused to drink water, they would say, "Perhaps it has seen Zafar Khan!"
In 1303, Ala-ud-din Khilji significantly depleted the military resources of Hindustan by launching two distant campaigns. A substantial portion of his army was dispatched to the south to conquer Warangal, while Ala-ud-din himself led another division toward Chittor. Seizing this opportunity, Targhi and his Mongol troops advanced towards Delhi.
However, the Mongols managed to reach Delhi only after Ala-ud-din's return from Chittor. Targhi established his encampment along the banks of the Yamuna River.
With his forces scattered and disorganised, Ala-ud-din found himself in a difficult situation. Many of his troops had just returned from a failed campaign in the South, losing many men and supplies.
Under these circumstances, Ala-ud-din and his remaining forces set up camp at Siri, strengthening their defenses by digging trenches and constructing wooden blockhouses. The Sultanate's armies, summoned from various directions, struggled to advance beyond Koil and Baran, as the Mongols had seized control of all the fords across the Yamuna. Barani notes that the Mongols even sold provisions from Ala-ud-din's stores at remarkably low prices to the citizens of Delhi.
Over the course of two months, few skirmishes erupted between the two armies; however, neither side achieved a decisive victory. The Mongols were ultimately unable to breach the royal camp and retreated after the prolonged siege.
After Targhi's return, Ala-ud-din focused on the defence of his country against the repeated inroads of the Mongols. He built the city of Siri and effectively garrisoned it, making it the capital. Old forts along the Mongols' route were repaired, and new forts were constructed as needed. Experienced kotwals were appointed to oversee these forts, which were stocked with ample supplies of grain and fodder. The governorships along the Mongol frontier were entrusted to powerful amirs.
After this India remained free from Mongol invasions for many years.
Ala-ud-din Khilji's success against the Mongols stands as a monumental achievement in Indian history. Ghazi Malik, the governor of Dipalpur and Lahore (afterwards Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq), made continuous incursions into Mongol territory, plundering the provinces of Kabul, Ghazni, Kandahar and Garmsir.
For Indian rulers, the Mongols were a consistent threat. The Mongols had established a formidable presence in Central Asia, and their expansionist ambitions frequently targeted the fertile plains of India. However, Ala-ud-din's effective administrative measures prevented any of their invasions from causing harm.
Invasion of Kadar - Battle of Jaran-Manjur (1297-98)
The first Mongol invasion took place shortly after Ala-ud-din's accession. In late 1297, Duwa Khan of Mawar ul Nahr (Transoxiana) sent a large army led by his general Kadar to plunder Punjab. Ala-ud-din tasked his brother Ulugh Khan to confront them. Ulugh Khan emerged victorious over the Mongols at Jaran-Manjur in February 1298.Invasion of Saldi - Capture of Siwistan (1299)
In the early months of 1299, another Mongol force, led by Saldi and his brother, seized the fort of Siwistan (Sehwan). Ala-ud-din appointed Zafar Khan to confront the invaders. Despite facing a relentless barrage of arrows from the garrison, Zafar Khan managed to breach the fort's defenses and compelled the Mongols to surrender. Saldi, his brother, and their entire contingent, including women and children, were subsequently taken to Delhi.Zafar Khan's exceptional generalship and bravery during the battle with Saldi earned him widespread acclaim throughout the country, inciting feelings of jealousy and fear in Ulugh Khan and even in Ala-ud-din. Historian Ziauddin Barani notes that Ala-ud-din was thinking of ways to get rid of Zafar Khan, including sending him to Lakhnauti or even poisoning or blinding him. But Ala-ud-din was prevented from this measure due to a third invasion of the Mongols.
Invasion of Qutlugh Khwaja - Battle of Kili (1299)
Towards the end of 1299, Qutlugh Khwaja, the son of Duwa Khan, with his troops crossed the Indus river. They did not plunder any cities or reduce any forts along the way, but instead marched straight to conquer Delhi. Zafar Khan, stationed at Kuhram, challenged Qutlugh to battle. However, Qutlugh dismissed his messenger, saying. "kings only fight kings", and invited Zafar Khan to meet him at Delhi under his master's banner.The Mongols established their camp at Kili, near Delhi, and commenced a siege. The residents of nearby towns sought refuge in the old fort of Delhi out of fear.
Ala-ud-din marched out of Delhi and camped at Siri. Malik Alau-l Mulk, the uncle of Ziauddin Barani and the kotwal of Delhi, advised against engaging the Mongols, suggesting that they should seek peace through negotiation. However, Ala-ud-din firmly rejected this counsel.
Addressing Alau-l Mulk in front of the assembled amirs and maliks, Ala-ud-din declared, "If I were to follow your advice, how could I show my face to anyone? With what manliness will I be able to go into my harem again? How would my subjects respect me, and what courage would the rebellious see in me to make them remain loyal?"
"Alau-l Mulk! I have given you the kotwalship of Delhi and entrusted the city, the harem and the treasury to your care. Whichever of us, whether he (Qutlugh Khwaja) or I, prove the conqueror, salute the victor with the keys of the gates, and of the treasures, and lay them before him, and become his obedient servant and vassal." With these words, Ala-ud-din marched with his army toward Kili.
Death of Zafar Khan
Malik Hizabr-ud-din Zafar Khan was the Aariz-ul-Mumalik. His real name was Yusuf and he was the nephew of Ala-ud-din.Commanding the right wing of the army, Zafar Khan made a furious assault on the Mongols, routing their left flank. He pursued the retreating enemy for some distance, contemplating an attack on their center. However, with only a small force remaining, he wisely chose to retreat and returned to his camp triumphant.
Meanwhile, the Mongol general Targhi, who was lying in ambush on the way to Kili, attacked Zafar Khan from behind and surrounded him with his forces. Zafar Khan rallied his troops, despite being outnumbered, and resumed the conflict. At last, his horse's leg was cut off by a sabre and he fell to the ground. Undeterred, he quickly regained his footing, retrieved arrows from his quiver, and felled a Mongol warrior with each shot.
Impressed by Zafar Khan's valor, Qutlugh Khwaja sent him a message, "Come to me. I will take you to my father, who will raise you to a higher dignity than the king of Delhi has done." However, Zafar Khan ignored his offer.
Qutlugh Khwaja, realizing that Zafar Khan could not be captured alive, ordered his men to shower arrows on him. In this manner, Zafar Khan met his martyrdom.
For the next three days, both armies stood face to face from dawn until dusk. By the end of the third night, the Mongols retreated. Qutlugh Khwaja, who had been severely wounded in the battle, died shortly after returning from India.
Ferishta records that Ala-ud-din viewed Zafar Khan's death as a second victory. In contrast, Isami states that when Ala-ud-din heard of Zafar Khan's fall, he was deeply saddened because India had lost a warrior like Rustam.
Zafar Khan's bravery was so legendary among the Mongols that if their cattle refused to drink water, they would say, "Perhaps it has seen Zafar Khan!"
Invasion of Targhi - Siege of Delhi (1303)
Of the four Khans of Ala-ud-din, three had died by 1303: Zafar Khan fell in battle against Qutlugh Khwaja in 1299, Nusrat Khan met his end during the conquest of Ranthambore in 1299, and Ulugh Khan died shortly after the Ranthambore expedition. Only Alp Khan, Ala-ud-din's brother-in-law, remained.In 1303, Ala-ud-din Khilji significantly depleted the military resources of Hindustan by launching two distant campaigns. A substantial portion of his army was dispatched to the south to conquer Warangal, while Ala-ud-din himself led another division toward Chittor. Seizing this opportunity, Targhi and his Mongol troops advanced towards Delhi.
However, the Mongols managed to reach Delhi only after Ala-ud-din's return from Chittor. Targhi established his encampment along the banks of the Yamuna River.
With his forces scattered and disorganised, Ala-ud-din found himself in a difficult situation. Many of his troops had just returned from a failed campaign in the South, losing many men and supplies.
Under these circumstances, Ala-ud-din and his remaining forces set up camp at Siri, strengthening their defenses by digging trenches and constructing wooden blockhouses. The Sultanate's armies, summoned from various directions, struggled to advance beyond Koil and Baran, as the Mongols had seized control of all the fords across the Yamuna. Barani notes that the Mongols even sold provisions from Ala-ud-din's stores at remarkably low prices to the citizens of Delhi.
Over the course of two months, few skirmishes erupted between the two armies; however, neither side achieved a decisive victory. The Mongols were ultimately unable to breach the royal camp and retreated after the prolonged siege.
After Targhi's return, Ala-ud-din focused on the defence of his country against the repeated inroads of the Mongols. He built the city of Siri and effectively garrisoned it, making it the capital. Old forts along the Mongols' route were repaired, and new forts were constructed as needed. Experienced kotwals were appointed to oversee these forts, which were stocked with ample supplies of grain and fodder. The governorships along the Mongol frontier were entrusted to powerful amirs.
Invasion of Ali Beg, Tartaq and Targhi - Battle of Amroha (1305)
In late 1305, Ali Beg, Tartaq and Targhi advanced towards Hindustan. Ali Beg and Tartaq occupied Amroha. Ala-ud-din dispatched Malik Naik Akhur Beg, accompanied by notable chieftains such as Ghazi Malik Tughlaq, to confront the Mongols, resulting in a significant triumph. Targhi was shot by an arrow in the midst of the battle. Ali Beg and Tartaq were captured and subsequently executed.Invasion of Kebek, Iqbalmanda and Taibu - Battle of Ravi (1306)
In 1306, three fierce Mongol contingents under Kebek, Iqbalmanda and Taibu, rapidly came to Multan, to take revenge for the fate of Ali Beg and Tartaq. They began to ravage the territories near the river Ravi. Kubak entered Nagaur and plundered it. The armies of Iqbalmanda and Taibu followed behind Kubak's. Malik Kafur marched against them. Iqbalmanda and Taibu fled, and Kubak was captured and brought to Delhi, where he was shortly executed.After this India remained free from Mongol invasions for many years.
Ala-ud-din Khilji's success against the Mongols stands as a monumental achievement in Indian history. Ghazi Malik, the governor of Dipalpur and Lahore (afterwards Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq), made continuous incursions into Mongol territory, plundering the provinces of Kabul, Ghazni, Kandahar and Garmsir.
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