When Balban Lost His Beloved Son to the Mongols
He never joked, nor did he allow anyone to joke in his presence. He never laughed aloud, nor did he permit any one in his court to laugh. Jesters and buffoons had no place there.
It was the court of Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, the strictest and most disciplined ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.
Following Iltutmish's death in 1236, his group of Turkish slaves, known as the Forty or Chihalgani, became increasingly powerful. Balban was also among them. They took control of the administration and interfered in matters of succession and governance. Their growing influence gradually weakened the authority of the monarchy.
During the reign of Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (r: 1246-1266), Balban became the Naib-i Mamlikat, or Deputy of the kingdom, and received the title Ulugh Khan. Although Nasir-ud-din remained the nominal ruler, Ulugh Khan wielded real power and managed the affairs of the Sultanate.
When Nasir-ud-din Mahmud died in 1266 without leaving a heir, Ulugh Khan ascended the throne as Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Balban (r. 1266-1287). He became the ninth ruler of the early Turkish empire of Delhi, popularly known as the Slave dynasty.
Balban knew that his throne would remain insecure as long as the Chihalgani continued to dominate the kingdom. He therefore eliminated many of them, either by the dagger or poison. Among those killed was his own cousin, Sher Khan.
Balban reorganised the administration and restored the authority of the government so that the people became tractable, obedient and submissive. Balban is widely regarded as one of the greatest rulers of the Delhi Sultanate.
Balban regarded the king as God's representative on earth. He believed a ruler had four essential duties: maintaining dignity and power while ensuring the welfare of the people and upholding the fear of God; appropriately punish crime and disorders; appointing wise, meritorious, honest, and God-fearing individuals to important offices; and administer justice fairly.
Balban was a strict and disciplined ruler. After becoming Sultan, he gave up drinking and also banned wine and other intoxicants. Loose talk, Joking, loud laughter, and the presence of jesters and buffoons were forbidden at the royal court.
For Balban, the splendour of the court and royal ceremonies were essential for maintaining the authority of the monarchy. Festivals like Navroz and Eid, as well as Balban's birthday, were celebrated with great pomp and ceremony.
In his manner and appearance, Balban displayed such grandeur, pride, and sternness that onlookers were struck with awe and fear. He held that dignity and majesty of a king could make subjects and enemies fear him even more than punishment could.
Royal processions were magnificent displays of power. The state elephants were adorned with purple and gold trappings. His horseguards, consisting of a thousand Tartars, appeared in glittering armour and rode the finest Persian and Arabian horses with silver bits and richly embroidered saddles. Five hundred elite foot soldiers, dressed in rich liveries and carrying drawn swords, marched before the Sultan, announcing his arrival and clearing the way. The nobles followed according to their rank, accompanied by their attendants and equipment.
Balban also avoided associating with people whom he considered to be of low origin, believing that this could diminish his prestige. He valued character and integrity when selecting people for government positions.
Despite his stern personality, Balban was also known for his generosity. His court became a refuge for rulers and nobles who had been overthrown by the Mongols. They were given generous allowances and palaces to live in.
One famous story concerns Malik Faiz Shirwani, the governor of Budaun, who killed one of his servants while drunk. The servant's widow complained to Balban, and the Sultan ordered Malik Faiz to be beaten to death.
Another case involved Haibat Khan, the governor of Oudh, who killed a man while intoxicated. Balban ordered him to be publicly whipped with 500 lashes and then handed him over as a slave to the widow of the man he had killed. Haibat Khan eventually secured his release by paying 20,000 silver tankas.
His reasoning was recorded by Ziauddin Barani in his Tarikh-i Firoz Shahi. "These accursed wretches have heard of the wealth and prosperity of Hindustan, and have set their hearts upon conquering and plundering it. They have taken and plundered Lahore within my territories, and no year passes that they do not come here and plunder the villages. They watch the opportunity of my departure on a distant campaign to enter my cities and ravage the whole Doab. I never leave my kingdom, nor will I go to any distance from it."
Balban maintained a well-trained army capable of responding quickly to Mongol attacks. He also used hunting expeditions to train his soldiers and keep them prepared for battle.
He later marched into the Doab and crushed the rebellious Kateheris in the regions around Budaun and Amroha.
Balban also led a campaign towards the Jud Hills, or Salt Range, where his forces plundered the region.
He also constructed strong forts at Kampil, Patiyali and Bhojpur.
The fort of Jalali was repaired.
At Santur, he constructed a fort called Makar-Khachuri, also known as Hisar-i-Nau.
Balban also rebuilt the fort at Lahore, which had been destroyed by the Mongols during the reign of Sultan Bahram.
Before his death, Sher Khan had played a significant role in resisting Mongol incursions in regions such as Lahore, Multan, Sirhind, and Dipalpur. After his death, the governments under his administration were divided among other officers. Unfortunately, Sher Khan's successors proved less capable, and the Mongols began their attacks again.
To strengthen the defence of the frontier, Balban sent Prince Muhammad to Multan, entrusting him with the government of Sindh and the nearby frontier territories. Balban's younger son, Bughra Khan, also known as Mahmud and Kurra Khan, was given charge of Samana and Sunam.
In the event of a Mongol invasion, Muhammad Sultan from Multan, Bughra Khan from Samana and Malik Barbak Beg from Delhi could be immediately deployed against the enemy.
At Multan, Muhammad's court became an important centre of Persian literary culture. The famous poets Amir Khusru and Amir Hasan were in his service for five years.
Balban marched into Bengal and ultimately defeated Tughril. Subsequently, he appointed Bughra Khan to govern Bengal.
In 1285, A large Mongol army advanced towards Lahore under Tamar, whose name is also spelt Itimar, Aitamar or Tamur. Prince Muhammad went out to resist the Mongol advance. He fought bravely but was killed during the campaign by an arrow.
Historian Isami wrote that the Mongols placed Muhammad's body in a coffin with the intention of taking it to their own country. However, Rai Kalu, the prince's father-in-law, purchased the body from the Mongols after paying them a huge amount of gold and other wealth.
After his death, Prince Muhammad became known as Khan-i-Shahid, meaning the Martyr Prince.
Amir Khusrau, who had accompanied Prince Muhammad during the campaign, was captured by the Mongols. He was later released and returned to Delhi. He composed two elegies in memory of the prince.
To those who stood before him, Balban appeared as a man of extraordinary sternness and dignity. His court was designed to inspire awe, his administration was built upon discipline. He demanded obedience from his subjects and punished those who challenged his power.
The man who had made others fear him was finally broken by a loss he could not punish, defeat or prevent.
Bearing his misfortune, Balban appointed his grandson Kaikhusrau, Muhammad's son, to govern Multan and entrusted him with the defence of the frontier.
But the death of his son had deeply affected him. Balban's reign was now approaching its end.
Balban was concerned that his grandsons, Kaikhusrau, the son of the martyred Muhammad, and Qaiqabad, Bughra Khan's son, were still young and inexperienced to rule such a large kingdom. If Bughra Khan became Sultan of Delhi, the ruler of Bengal would acknowledge his authority. However, if one of the young princes ascended the throne in Delhi, Bughra Khan, as the ruler of Bengal, would have to submit to either his nephew or his son.
Bughra Khan, however, preferred to rule Bengal. When Balban showed signs of recovery, he secretly left for Lakhnauti.
Balban's health soon declined again. When Bughra Khan refused to take the throne of Delhi, Balban eventually made his grandson Kaikhusrau his successor.
Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din Balban died in 1287 after ruling for more than two decades. He was buried in the Darul Aman at Mehrauli, Delhi. His beloved son Khan-i-Shahid is also buried there.
However, the succession did not proceed according to Balban's wishes.
Malik Fukhr-ud-din, the kotwal or chief magistrate, and his supporters had great power in the kingdom. Due to their animosity towards Prince Muhammad, they opposed Kaikhusrau's succession. They sent Kaikhusrau to Multan under a false pretext. The kotwal then summoned the chiefs, arguing that Kaikhusrau was temperamentally unfit to rule. As Bughra Khan was in Bengal, the throne was offered to his son Qaiqabad, who was in Delhi.
After Balban's death, Qaiqabad was placed on the throne with the title Muiz al-Din.
It was the court of Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, the strictest and most disciplined ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.
From Slave to Sultan
During the thirty years after the death of Sultan Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (r: 1211-1236), five of his descendants - Rukn-ud-din Firuz, Raziyya Sultan, Muizz-ud-din Bahram, Ala-ud-din Masud, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud - ruled over Delhi. But, several of these Sultans were weak or incapable rulers.
Following Iltutmish's death in 1236, his group of Turkish slaves, known as the Forty or Chihalgani, became increasingly powerful. Balban was also among them. They took control of the administration and interfered in matters of succession and governance. Their growing influence gradually weakened the authority of the monarchy.
During the reign of Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (r: 1246-1266), Balban became the Naib-i Mamlikat, or Deputy of the kingdom, and received the title Ulugh Khan. Although Nasir-ud-din remained the nominal ruler, Ulugh Khan wielded real power and managed the affairs of the Sultanate.
When Nasir-ud-din Mahmud died in 1266 without leaving a heir, Ulugh Khan ascended the throne as Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Balban (r. 1266-1287). He became the ninth ruler of the early Turkish empire of Delhi, popularly known as the Slave dynasty.
Balban knew that his throne would remain insecure as long as the Chihalgani continued to dominate the kingdom. He therefore eliminated many of them, either by the dagger or poison. Among those killed was his own cousin, Sher Khan.
Balban reorganised the administration and restored the authority of the government so that the people became tractable, obedient and submissive. Balban is widely regarded as one of the greatest rulers of the Delhi Sultanate.
Balban's Idea of Kingship
Balban claimed descent from the legendary Turkish king Afrasiyab and adopted several traditions associated with the ancient Persian kings. He even gave Persian names to his grandsons, such as Kaikhusrau, Kaikubad (Qaiqabad), Kaikaus, Kaimurs.Balban regarded the king as God's representative on earth. He believed a ruler had four essential duties: maintaining dignity and power while ensuring the welfare of the people and upholding the fear of God; appropriately punish crime and disorders; appointing wise, meritorious, honest, and God-fearing individuals to important offices; and administer justice fairly.
Balban was a strict and disciplined ruler. After becoming Sultan, he gave up drinking and also banned wine and other intoxicants. Loose talk, Joking, loud laughter, and the presence of jesters and buffoons were forbidden at the royal court.
For Balban, the splendour of the court and royal ceremonies were essential for maintaining the authority of the monarchy. Festivals like Navroz and Eid, as well as Balban's birthday, were celebrated with great pomp and ceremony.
In his manner and appearance, Balban displayed such grandeur, pride, and sternness that onlookers were struck with awe and fear. He held that dignity and majesty of a king could make subjects and enemies fear him even more than punishment could.
Royal processions were magnificent displays of power. The state elephants were adorned with purple and gold trappings. His horseguards, consisting of a thousand Tartars, appeared in glittering armour and rode the finest Persian and Arabian horses with silver bits and richly embroidered saddles. Five hundred elite foot soldiers, dressed in rich liveries and carrying drawn swords, marched before the Sultan, announcing his arrival and clearing the way. The nobles followed according to their rank, accompanied by their attendants and equipment.
Balban also avoided associating with people whom he considered to be of low origin, believing that this could diminish his prestige. He valued character and integrity when selecting people for government positions.
Despite his stern personality, Balban was also known for his generosity. His court became a refuge for rulers and nobles who had been overthrown by the Mongols. They were given generous allowances and palaces to live in.
Balban and Justice
In matters of justice, Balban was inflexible and showed favour to no one. To ensure that justice was properly administered, he placed confidential spies throughout the kingdom.One famous story concerns Malik Faiz Shirwani, the governor of Budaun, who killed one of his servants while drunk. The servant's widow complained to Balban, and the Sultan ordered Malik Faiz to be beaten to death.
Another case involved Haibat Khan, the governor of Oudh, who killed a man while intoxicated. Balban ordered him to be publicly whipped with 500 lashes and then handed him over as a slave to the widow of the man he had killed. Haibat Khan eventually secured his release by paying 20,000 silver tankas.
The Mongol Threat
The Mongols had been one of the greatest dangers faced by the Delhi Sultanate since the reign of Iltutmish. Balban never attempted to conquer distant lands because he could not leave Delhi vulnerable while the Mongols threatened the north-western frontier. According to Balban, a king should first secure his own dominions before seeking to conquer new territories.His reasoning was recorded by Ziauddin Barani in his Tarikh-i Firoz Shahi. "These accursed wretches have heard of the wealth and prosperity of Hindustan, and have set their hearts upon conquering and plundering it. They have taken and plundered Lahore within my territories, and no year passes that they do not come here and plunder the villages. They watch the opportunity of my departure on a distant campaign to enter my cities and ravage the whole Doab. I never leave my kingdom, nor will I go to any distance from it."
Balban maintained a well-trained army capable of responding quickly to Mongol attacks. He also used hunting expeditions to train his soldiers and keep them prepared for battle.
Campaigns Against Mewatis and Kateharis
During the early years of his reign, Balban undertook campaigns against the bandits known as the Meos, or Mewatis. They had taken shelter in the forests around Delhi and carried out raids and robberies. At night, they entered the city, broke into houses and stole valuable goods. Balban sent his army against them, cleared the forests, and carried out a harsh campaign to end their activities.He later marched into the Doab and crushed the rebellious Kateheris in the regions around Budaun and Amroha.
Balban also led a campaign towards the Jud Hills, or Salt Range, where his forces plundered the region.
Building and Repairing Forts
Near Delhi, Balban built a fort at Gopalgir, also known as Kawalkar or Kilokhari, and established several military posts.He also constructed strong forts at Kampil, Patiyali and Bhojpur.
The fort of Jalali was repaired.
At Santur, he constructed a fort called Makar-Khachuri, also known as Hisar-i-Nau.
Balban also rebuilt the fort at Lahore, which had been destroyed by the Mongols during the reign of Sultan Bahram.
Muhammad Khan: Balban's Eldest Son
Muhammad Khan, also known as Qaan Malik, was Balban's eldest son and declared successor. During the early years of Balban's reign, he governed the territory of Kol (Aligarh) and its dependent districts. |
| Balban with his son Khan Shahid |
Before his death, Sher Khan had played a significant role in resisting Mongol incursions in regions such as Lahore, Multan, Sirhind, and Dipalpur. After his death, the governments under his administration were divided among other officers. Unfortunately, Sher Khan's successors proved less capable, and the Mongols began their attacks again.
To strengthen the defence of the frontier, Balban sent Prince Muhammad to Multan, entrusting him with the government of Sindh and the nearby frontier territories. Balban's younger son, Bughra Khan, also known as Mahmud and Kurra Khan, was given charge of Samana and Sunam.
In the event of a Mongol invasion, Muhammad Sultan from Multan, Bughra Khan from Samana and Malik Barbak Beg from Delhi could be immediately deployed against the enemy.
At Multan, Muhammad's court became an important centre of Persian literary culture. The famous poets Amir Khusru and Amir Hasan were in his service for five years.
Rebellion of Tughril in Bengal
At one point, Balban fell seriously ill, and rumours of his death spread throughout the kingdom. Seizing the opportunity, Tughril, the governor of Lakhnauti (Bengal), declared his independence and assumed the title of Sultan. Balban initially sent military commanders to suppress the rebellion, but they failed. He therefore decided to lead the campaign himself.Balban marched into Bengal and ultimately defeated Tughril. Subsequently, he appointed Bughra Khan to govern Bengal.
 |
| Prince Muhammad facing Mongol cavalry |
The Martyrdom of Muhammad Khan
Then came the greatest tragedy of Balban's life.In 1285, A large Mongol army advanced towards Lahore under Tamar, whose name is also spelt Itimar, Aitamar or Tamur. Prince Muhammad went out to resist the Mongol advance. He fought bravely but was killed during the campaign by an arrow.
Historian Isami wrote that the Mongols placed Muhammad's body in a coffin with the intention of taking it to their own country. However, Rai Kalu, the prince's father-in-law, purchased the body from the Mongols after paying them a huge amount of gold and other wealth.
After his death, Prince Muhammad became known as Khan-i-Shahid, meaning the Martyr Prince.
Amir Khusrau, who had accompanied Prince Muhammad during the campaign, was captured by the Mongols. He was later released and returned to Delhi. He composed two elegies in memory of the prince.
 |
| The Messenger Arrives: Balban Learns of Prince Muhammad's Death |
Balban's Defeat
When the news of Prince Muhammad's death reached Balban, the eighty-year-old Sultan was overwhelmed with grief. He tried to appear brave and strong, but the tragedy had clearly broken him. During the day, Balban continued to hold court and manage the affairs of his kingdom as usual. But at night, when he was away from the public eye, he is said to have wept bitterly. In his grief, he tore off his garments and threw dust upon his head. |
| Balban alone at night, grieving for his son |
To those who stood before him, Balban appeared as a man of extraordinary sternness and dignity. His court was designed to inspire awe, his administration was built upon discipline. He demanded obedience from his subjects and punished those who challenged his power.
The man who had made others fear him was finally broken by a loss he could not punish, defeat or prevent.
Bearing his misfortune, Balban appointed his grandson Kaikhusrau, Muhammad's son, to govern Multan and entrusted him with the defence of the frontier.
But the death of his son had deeply affected him. Balban's reign was now approaching its end.
 |
| A symbolic historical image representing Prince Muhammad, the heir who would never become Sultan |
Balban's Last Days
As Balban's health worsened, he summoned his younger son, now his only hope, Bughra Khan, from Bengal, and wanted him to succeed to the throne of Delhi.Balban was concerned that his grandsons, Kaikhusrau, the son of the martyred Muhammad, and Qaiqabad, Bughra Khan's son, were still young and inexperienced to rule such a large kingdom. If Bughra Khan became Sultan of Delhi, the ruler of Bengal would acknowledge his authority. However, if one of the young princes ascended the throne in Delhi, Bughra Khan, as the ruler of Bengal, would have to submit to either his nephew or his son.
Bughra Khan, however, preferred to rule Bengal. When Balban showed signs of recovery, he secretly left for Lakhnauti.
Balban's health soon declined again. When Bughra Khan refused to take the throne of Delhi, Balban eventually made his grandson Kaikhusrau his successor.
Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din Balban died in 1287 after ruling for more than two decades. He was buried in the Darul Aman at Mehrauli, Delhi. His beloved son Khan-i-Shahid is also buried there.
However, the succession did not proceed according to Balban's wishes.
 |
| Khan-i-Shahid's Tomb, Mehrauli, Delhi |
Malik Fukhr-ud-din, the kotwal or chief magistrate, and his supporters had great power in the kingdom. Due to their animosity towards Prince Muhammad, they opposed Kaikhusrau's succession. They sent Kaikhusrau to Multan under a false pretext. The kotwal then summoned the chiefs, arguing that Kaikhusrau was temperamentally unfit to rule. As Bughra Khan was in Bengal, the throne was offered to his son Qaiqabad, who was in Delhi.
After Balban's death, Qaiqabad was placed on the throne with the title Muiz al-Din.
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